PCTFREE , PCTUSED ,INITRANS & MAXTRANS

       The datafiles are the physical storage space on the server. Storage in the datafiles is allocated by blocks to each extent that is used by an object. The block size is operating system-dependent and is determined when the database is created and cannot be changed. The database block size is set in the database parameter file DB_BLOCK_SIZE. Typically, a database block is either 2K or 4K.

•The PCTFREE parameter specifies the percentage of space in each segment's data block reserved for future record expansion into the block.

If records within a block are rarely updated after they are inserted, you should set PCTFREE lower to allow for full space usage. If records within a block are subject to many updates, you should set PCTFREE higher to allow for more growth.

Once the PCTFREE threshold is reached, no additional rows will be inserted until the PCTUSED threshold is reached due to deletion of data. If PCTFREE is set too low, row chaining and row migration will result because updates to the record will not fit into the block.
After that point, no new rows can be inserted into that block until the free space percentage falls below the PCTUSED threshold. The default for PCTFREE is 10%.

The PCTFREE and PCTUSED parameters tell Oracle when to link and unlink a block from the freelist chain. This is only relevant if you are not using the new Automatic Segment Space Management .

•The PCTUSED parameter defines the minimum percentage of data block used space that is necessary before the block is eligible for row insertion. A segment block is added to the free space list once its used space falls below this threshold. The default for PCTUSED is 40%.

If data is static, you will be able to set the PCTUSED lower and more fully use the space. If large amounts of data are inserted and deleted, you should set the PCTUSED higher to prevent block fragmentation.

You might set these parameters as follows: CREATE table emp (......) PCTFREE 5 PCTUSED 80.

The combined sum of PCTFREE and PCTUSED must be less than 100. Correct choice of these parameters can be used to improve the efficiency of table and index segments.

For example, tables that are insert-only (auditing tables, history tables, etc.) should have a PCTFREE setting of 1.

This simple change to a table's storage definition can reduce its total disk space requirements by 10%.
This means less object extension and less physical disk I/O when reading and writing: 10% more data can be read or written with a single data block read; 10% more data can be held in the database's SGA.

This is a very simple way of increasing your block buffer cache without having to buy any more memory.

INITRANS is the initial number of concurrent transactions allocated in each block header when the block is allocated. The default is 1, which is the minimum. The maximum is 255. The size of each transaction entry is operating system-dependent.

MAXTRANS is the maximum number of concurrent transactions for the blocks within the tablespace. The default is 255, which is the maximum. The minimum setting is 1.

Oracle Managed Datafiles (OMFs)

Oracle introduced Oracle Managed Files (OMF) concept in Oracle 9i. OMFs simplify the administration task of an Oracle Database. Oracle manages these files for the administrators.
Prior to Oracle9i, when you dropped a tablespace you would also have to manually remove the physical datafile associated with that tablespace from the operating system.

If a wrong datafile is removed manually from the Operating System, then the option remaining was to do the recovery of the file from the recent backup, which means either a bigger downtime or the tablespace containing the removed datafile was unavailable for the users.
This manual task of removing the datafile is taken over by Oracle. Hence, with Oracle-Managed Datafiles physical file management is left to the database itself.

Oracle-Managed Datafiles (OMFs) give Oracle the ability to manage database files for you.The database internally uses standard file system interfaces to create and delete files as needed.

OMFs can be used when creating database datafiles, tempfiles, online redo logfiles, and database control files.
Before using OMFs, the database must be configured for OMF use. After the database is configured

If the database creates an Oracle Managed Control File, and the database uses SPFILE, then the control_file parameter is automatically added to the SPFILE with the location of the control file.

If PFILE is used instead of SPFILE, then the control_file parameter needs to be added manually else the instance startup will fail.

Cursors

         Whenever a SQL statement is executed, Oracle automatically allocates a memory area (known as context area) in Oracle database PGA i.e. Process Global Area. This allocated memory space is the query work area which holds the query related information.This is know as cursors

OPEN stage

•PGA memory allocation for cursor processing (OPEN Cursor)
•Parsing of SELECT statement (Parse SQL)
•Variable binding (Bind SQL)
•SELECT Query execution (Execute Query)
•Move the record pointer to the first record

FETCH stage

The record, to which the record pointer points, is pulled from the result set. The record pointer moves only in the forward direction. The FETCH phase lives until the last record is reached.

CLOSE stage

After the last record of the result set is reached, cursor is closed, and allocated memory is flushed off and released back to SGA. Even if an open cursor is not closed, oracle automatically closes it after the execution of its parent block


Cursor FOR loops

Cursor FOR loops improvise upon the performance and code interactivity by their implicit actions

Parameterized Cursors

Parameterized cursors enables programmer to pass parameter to the cursors

Dynamic Cursor FOR Loops

FOR I IN (SELECT EMPLOYEE_NAME, JOB_ID,SALARY FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID=10)

FOR UPDATE OF clause is used to lock a set of rows in a session. This concept can be used in explicit cursors to impose exclusive row level lock on all the rows contained by the cursor query result set. These rows will remain locked until the session issues ROLLBACK or COMMIT.

Oracle provides WHERE CURRENT OF clause to update or delete the rows which are locked by the FOR UPDATE OF cursor in the session

Oracle Collection - Varrays

Varrays hold a fixed number of elements, although the number of elements can be changed at runtime. Like nested tables, varrays use sequential numbers as the index or key to the elements. You can define equivalent SQL types, allowing varrays to be stored in database tables. Varrays are a good choice when the number of elements is known in advance, and when the elements are likely to be accessed in sequence.

      A VARRAY is an array of varying size. It has an ordered set of data elements, and all the elements are of the same data type. The number of elements in a VARRAY is the "size" of the VARRAY. You must specify a maximum size (but not a minimum size) when you declare the VARRAY type.

         In general, the VARRAY type should be used when the number of items to be stored is small; it is not suitable for large numbers of items or elements. Note that you cannot index or constrain VARRAY values. Varray is available in PL/SQL as well as in SQL

Arrays must be dense (have consecutive subscripts). So, you cannot delete individual elements from an array

Use to preserve ordered list

Use when working with a fixed set, with a known number of entries

Use when you need to store in the database and operate on the Collection as a whole

  Varrays in SQL

CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE varray_type AS VARRAY(SIZE) OF element_type;

 Varrays in PLSQL

TYPE varray_type IS VARRAY(SIZE) OF element_type (datatype) ;

varray_name varray_type; (variable type in PL/SQL)

varray_name := varray_type();(create it using the constructor)


CREATE TABLE table_name(field1 [VARCHAR2 NUMBER DATE],field2 varray_type);

Example :
CREATE TYPE Project AS OBJECT ( project_no NUMBER(2), title  VARCHAR2(35),cost  NUMBER(7,2));

CREATE TYPE ProjectList AS VARRAY(50) OF Project;

CREATE TABLE department ( dept_id  NUMBER(2), name  VARCHAR2(15), budget NUMBER(11,2), projects ProjectList);


BEGIN
   INSERT INTO department
      VALUES(30, 'Accounting', 1205700,
         ProjectList(Project(1, 'Design New Expense Report', 3250),
                     Project(2, 'Outsource Payroll', 12350),
                     Project(3, 'Evaluate Merger Proposal', 2750),
                     Project(4, 'Audit Accounts Payable', 1425)));
END;

DECLARE
   new_projects ProjectList :=
      ProjectList(Project(1, 'Issue New Employee Badges', 13500),
                  Project(2, 'Develop New Patrol Plan', 1250),
                  Project(3, 'Inspect Emergency Exits', 1900),
                  Project(4, 'Upgrade Alarm System', 3350),
                  Project(5, 'Analyze Local Crime Stats', 825));
BEGIN
   UPDATE department
      SET projects = new_projects WHERE dept_id = 60;
END;
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Oracle Collection - Nested tables

Nested tables

         Nested tables hold an arbitrary number of elements and use sequential numbers as the index or key to the elements. Nested tables can be stored in database tables and manipulated through SQL. They are appropriate for data relationships that must be stored persistently. Nested tables are flexible in that arbitrary elements can be deleted, rather than just removing an element from the end. Note that the order and subscripts (keys) of nested tables are not preserved as the table is stored and retrieved in the database

   Nested tables can be stored in a database column.Nested tables are initially dense, but they can become sparse (Data does not have to be stored in consecutive rows) when elements are deleted. Nested Table is available in PL/SQL as well as in SQL.

Nested tables are dense, but they can become sparse (have nonconsecutive subscripts). So, you can delete elements from a nested table using the built-in procedure DELETE. That might leave gaps in the index, but the built-in function NEXT lets you iterate over any series of subscripts

CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE nestedtable_type AS TABLE OF element_type; (PLSQL Type in SQL)

CREATE TABLE nested_table (id NUMBER, col1 nestedtable_type) NESTED TABLE col1 STORE AS col1_tab;   (Nested Table)

TYPE nestedtable_type IS TABLE OF element_type; (PLSQL Type in PLSQL)